Gestalt Psychology What is it? Explain the main ideas and principles using your own examples.
Gestalt psychology (also Gestalt theory of the Berlin School) is a theory of mind and brain that proposes that the operational principle of the brain is holistic, parallel, and analog, with self-organizing tendencies; or, that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.
Tuesday, September 18, 2007
Sunday, September 2, 2007
Attitude Change - Essay
TOPIC: Attitude Change
What factors determine the success of attitude change programs?
Describe theoretical bases and research evidence about key elements underlying attitude change programs.
Attitudes represent our covert feelings of favourability or unfavourability toward an object, person, issue, or behaviour. Examples of some common attitudes are; smoking, and sun protection, which will be discussed in more depth. Kihan tells us that attitude is defined by Fishbein as “a learned predisposition to response in a consistently favourable or unfavourable manner with respect to a given object”. Audiences learn these attitudes over time by being exposed to the object directly (experience) or through receiving information about the object (e.g., advertising). Our learned attitudes serve as general guides to our overt behaviour with respect to the attitude object, giving rise to a consistently favourable or unfavourable pattern of response. Advertising is very important in allowing for people to be informed about topics in society that are important to the wellbeing of the general population (Kihan, 2002).
Kihan (2002) quotes from Fishbein that, attitude is an independent measure of affect for or against the attitude object, which is a function of belief strength and evaluative aspect associated with each attribute. When an attitude changes from A to B, it is asked what happens to A? Most theories assume, at least implicitly that the new attitude replaces the former one. However, emerging research in psychology suggest that a new attitude can override, but not replace, the old one, resulting in dual attitudes. One of which is an automatic, implicit attitude and the other of which is an explicit attitude. So once an attitude has been changed it may need reminding occasionally in case the individual reverts back to the old ways.
There has been a significant push for the attitudes of smoking to be stigmatized with negative connotations. Nicotine, the most abused psychoactive substance, has been characterized as causing the most deadly epidemic of modern times (Stratton, Shetty, Wallace, & Bondurant, 2001). Besides causing serious health problems for example, cancer, heart disease, emphysema, that costs billions of dollars annually, smoking is responsible for 25% to 33% of all deaths in the United States (Andersen, Keller, & McGowan, Hurt et al., Klatsky, Rice, 1999). Additionally, 2,000 youths start smoking cigarettes each day (Substance Abuse and Mental Health Administration, 2002). Thus, research on tobacco cessation is an important priority.
In a recent study using a similar technique from the Heatherton and Nichols (1994) study, the researchers Todd, Sobell, Carter, Simco, Edward (2006) analysed and compared individuals concerns and focuses with their nicotine addiction between successful and unsuccessful quitters. Successful changers described themselves as having more control over their behavior than non-changers did. Changers as compared with non-changers also (a) described more consequential threats (e.g., health problems) and focal events (e.g., a conclusive decision) as reasons for change; (b) reported stronger negative affect (e.g., anxiety); (c) reported the importance and assistance of others (e.g, family members); and (d) reported significantly more statements relating to commitments to change (e.g., informing peers about the decision to change), more environmental change, and less ambivalence toward change. Each individual can watch the same advertisement for quitting smoking, and they may have totally different reactions to the advertisement.
In recent years quit smoking campaigns have used the method of ‘shock value’, whereby images of a smoker’s lung, clogged arteries or eyes for example are shown so that the audience can see for themselves the significant impact of what smoking can do to you. Ms Judith Watt, the Executive Director of the Quit campaign stated in an ABC radio interview that the QuitLine has been very effective in that of those people who called 12 months later 29% of people had stopped smoking which is a very good statistic. Relatability is also important so that the audience can imagine the consequences of smoking actually happening to them. The information in the campaigns must also be accessible to the public, in addition to be simple enough for an average person to understand. Informing everyone as young as possible so that they have the knowledge to make decision about what they do in their life.
In Australia the ‘Slip, Slop and Slap’ campaign was introduced in an effort to increase people’s awareness of skin cancer from excessive exposure to the sun (The Cancer Council, 2006). Some schools have implemented a ‘no hat, no play’ rule, whereby if students do not have a hat, then they must sit in the shade during recess and lunch times. This promotes the students to wear hats each time they go out in the sun. As mentioned earlier educating children at a young age about the effects of the choices that they make even as children in wearing hats can prevent cancer and possibly death later in life from skin related diseases.
A study by Mahler, Kulik and Gibbons (2007) found that excessive UV exposure can produce uneven epidermal pigmentation. When this uneven pigmentation is viewed with a UV filter the skin appears blotchy and very unattractive, the participants are then shown the images of themselves with the uneven skin. This then reinforces the attitude not to use solariums or sunbathe excessively. People sunbathe or use solariums for the improvement of their appearance, so showing them the images of themselves now hideously unattractive should turn them off the behavior. As mentioned earlier the changing of an attitude may not totally replace the old attitude, so keeping that in mind it would be important to keep reminding the people who have participated in the exercise that excessive exposure to the UV has very negative consequences.
In summary, people have attitudes about everything, whether it is, brands of appliances, prejudices or health issues. The important factor is that everyone is well and correctly informed about the topics that are affecting or society. Additionally, as psychologists have found, old attitudes may reappear in the future, which can affect the decisions that people make, and may have significant consequences such as illness or death in the case of sun exposure and/or smoking cigarettes. Knowledge is the key in being able to have correct attitudes towards topics in our society.
Reference List
Andersen, S., Keller, C., & McGowan, N. (1999). Smoking cessation: The state of the science. The utility of the transtheoretical model in guiding interventions in smoking cessation. Online Journal of Knowledge Synthesis for Nursing, 6Article 2.
Helvig, Todd M., Sobell, Carter, L., Sobell, Mark B., Simco, Edward R., (2006). Smokers' Narrative Accounts of Quit Attempts: Aids and Impediments to Success Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, Vol. 20, Issue 2
Kihan, K. (2002). Attitude. From the How Advertising Works webpage. Visited 15 August, 2007. http://www.ciadvertising.org/SA/fall_02/adv382j/khkim05/howadwrok/attitude.htm
Mahler, Heike, I., Kulik, M., Gibbons M. (2007). Long-term effects of appearance-based interventions on sun protection behaviors. Health Psychology, Vol. 26, Issue 3
[n.n]. (1998). Anti-smoking advertisements a success. From News In Science Webpage, visited 15 August, 2007 http://www.abc.net.au/science/news/stories/s17759.htm
[N.n]. (2007) The Cancer Council. From the SunSmart webpage. Visited 15 August, 2007. http://www.sunsmart.com.au/browse.asp?ContainerID=1753
Stratton, K., Shetty, P., Wallace, R., & Bondurant, S. (2001). Clearing the smoke: The science base for tobacco harm reduction—executive summary. Tobacco Control, 10, 189–195
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Administration. (2002). National Household Survey on Drug Use and Health: Main findings 2002. Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
What factors determine the success of attitude change programs?
Describe theoretical bases and research evidence about key elements underlying attitude change programs.
Attitudes represent our covert feelings of favourability or unfavourability toward an object, person, issue, or behaviour. Examples of some common attitudes are; smoking, and sun protection, which will be discussed in more depth. Kihan tells us that attitude is defined by Fishbein as “a learned predisposition to response in a consistently favourable or unfavourable manner with respect to a given object”. Audiences learn these attitudes over time by being exposed to the object directly (experience) or through receiving information about the object (e.g., advertising). Our learned attitudes serve as general guides to our overt behaviour with respect to the attitude object, giving rise to a consistently favourable or unfavourable pattern of response. Advertising is very important in allowing for people to be informed about topics in society that are important to the wellbeing of the general population (Kihan, 2002).
Kihan (2002) quotes from Fishbein that, attitude is an independent measure of affect for or against the attitude object, which is a function of belief strength and evaluative aspect associated with each attribute. When an attitude changes from A to B, it is asked what happens to A? Most theories assume, at least implicitly that the new attitude replaces the former one. However, emerging research in psychology suggest that a new attitude can override, but not replace, the old one, resulting in dual attitudes. One of which is an automatic, implicit attitude and the other of which is an explicit attitude. So once an attitude has been changed it may need reminding occasionally in case the individual reverts back to the old ways.
There has been a significant push for the attitudes of smoking to be stigmatized with negative connotations. Nicotine, the most abused psychoactive substance, has been characterized as causing the most deadly epidemic of modern times (Stratton, Shetty, Wallace, & Bondurant, 2001). Besides causing serious health problems for example, cancer, heart disease, emphysema, that costs billions of dollars annually, smoking is responsible for 25% to 33% of all deaths in the United States (Andersen, Keller, & McGowan, Hurt et al., Klatsky, Rice, 1999). Additionally, 2,000 youths start smoking cigarettes each day (Substance Abuse and Mental Health Administration, 2002). Thus, research on tobacco cessation is an important priority.
In a recent study using a similar technique from the Heatherton and Nichols (1994) study, the researchers Todd, Sobell, Carter, Simco, Edward (2006) analysed and compared individuals concerns and focuses with their nicotine addiction between successful and unsuccessful quitters. Successful changers described themselves as having more control over their behavior than non-changers did. Changers as compared with non-changers also (a) described more consequential threats (e.g., health problems) and focal events (e.g., a conclusive decision) as reasons for change; (b) reported stronger negative affect (e.g., anxiety); (c) reported the importance and assistance of others (e.g, family members); and (d) reported significantly more statements relating to commitments to change (e.g., informing peers about the decision to change), more environmental change, and less ambivalence toward change. Each individual can watch the same advertisement for quitting smoking, and they may have totally different reactions to the advertisement.
In recent years quit smoking campaigns have used the method of ‘shock value’, whereby images of a smoker’s lung, clogged arteries or eyes for example are shown so that the audience can see for themselves the significant impact of what smoking can do to you. Ms Judith Watt, the Executive Director of the Quit campaign stated in an ABC radio interview that the QuitLine has been very effective in that of those people who called 12 months later 29% of people had stopped smoking which is a very good statistic. Relatability is also important so that the audience can imagine the consequences of smoking actually happening to them. The information in the campaigns must also be accessible to the public, in addition to be simple enough for an average person to understand. Informing everyone as young as possible so that they have the knowledge to make decision about what they do in their life.
In Australia the ‘Slip, Slop and Slap’ campaign was introduced in an effort to increase people’s awareness of skin cancer from excessive exposure to the sun (The Cancer Council, 2006). Some schools have implemented a ‘no hat, no play’ rule, whereby if students do not have a hat, then they must sit in the shade during recess and lunch times. This promotes the students to wear hats each time they go out in the sun. As mentioned earlier educating children at a young age about the effects of the choices that they make even as children in wearing hats can prevent cancer and possibly death later in life from skin related diseases.
A study by Mahler, Kulik and Gibbons (2007) found that excessive UV exposure can produce uneven epidermal pigmentation. When this uneven pigmentation is viewed with a UV filter the skin appears blotchy and very unattractive, the participants are then shown the images of themselves with the uneven skin. This then reinforces the attitude not to use solariums or sunbathe excessively. People sunbathe or use solariums for the improvement of their appearance, so showing them the images of themselves now hideously unattractive should turn them off the behavior. As mentioned earlier the changing of an attitude may not totally replace the old attitude, so keeping that in mind it would be important to keep reminding the people who have participated in the exercise that excessive exposure to the UV has very negative consequences.
In summary, people have attitudes about everything, whether it is, brands of appliances, prejudices or health issues. The important factor is that everyone is well and correctly informed about the topics that are affecting or society. Additionally, as psychologists have found, old attitudes may reappear in the future, which can affect the decisions that people make, and may have significant consequences such as illness or death in the case of sun exposure and/or smoking cigarettes. Knowledge is the key in being able to have correct attitudes towards topics in our society.
Reference List
Andersen, S., Keller, C., & McGowan, N. (1999). Smoking cessation: The state of the science. The utility of the transtheoretical model in guiding interventions in smoking cessation. Online Journal of Knowledge Synthesis for Nursing, 6Article 2.
Helvig, Todd M., Sobell, Carter, L., Sobell, Mark B., Simco, Edward R., (2006). Smokers' Narrative Accounts of Quit Attempts: Aids and Impediments to Success Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, Vol. 20, Issue 2
Kihan, K. (2002). Attitude. From the How Advertising Works webpage. Visited 15 August, 2007. http://www.ciadvertising.org/SA/fall_02/adv382j/khkim05/howadwrok/attitude.htm
Mahler, Heike, I., Kulik, M., Gibbons M. (2007). Long-term effects of appearance-based interventions on sun protection behaviors. Health Psychology, Vol. 26, Issue 3
[n.n]. (1998). Anti-smoking advertisements a success. From News In Science Webpage, visited 15 August, 2007 http://www.abc.net.au/science/news/stories/s17759.htm
[N.n]. (2007) The Cancer Council. From the SunSmart webpage. Visited 15 August, 2007. http://www.sunsmart.com.au/browse.asp?ContainerID=1753
Stratton, K., Shetty, P., Wallace, R., & Bondurant, S. (2001). Clearing the smoke: The science base for tobacco harm reduction—executive summary. Tobacco Control, 10, 189–195
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Administration. (2002). National Household Survey on Drug Use and Health: Main findings 2002. Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
Self Assessment
Theory:
This essay's main purpose is to investigate the way in which attitude change can be implemented, through different means. The different current topics that are in the media today are things such as attitudes towards smoking and awareness of the dangers of excessive sun exposure.
Research:
The research that was conducted was a thorough analyses of peer reviewed journal articles, web pages of different associations in relation to health and attitudes towards certain current and contenscious topics today. The articles and web pages offered case studies where the attitudes of people towards their addiction etc was and how it is influenced.
Written Expression:
The essay is written in APA format with a reference list following it. Additionally, a concept map has been added for ease of understanding the topic. Two links have been posted for further information on the two chosen topics of the essay. The word count is 1121.
Online Engagement:
There could have been more online engagement for this topic for the essays, the extra input and ideas from other students could serve as useful.
This essay's main purpose is to investigate the way in which attitude change can be implemented, through different means. The different current topics that are in the media today are things such as attitudes towards smoking and awareness of the dangers of excessive sun exposure.
Research:
The research that was conducted was a thorough analyses of peer reviewed journal articles, web pages of different associations in relation to health and attitudes towards certain current and contenscious topics today. The articles and web pages offered case studies where the attitudes of people towards their addiction etc was and how it is influenced.
Written Expression:
The essay is written in APA format with a reference list following it. Additionally, a concept map has been added for ease of understanding the topic. Two links have been posted for further information on the two chosen topics of the essay. The word count is 1121.
Online Engagement:
There could have been more online engagement for this topic for the essays, the extra input and ideas from other students could serve as useful.
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