Gestalt Psychology
What is it? Explain the main ideas and principles using your own examples.
Gestalt is a German word that is not easily translated into a single English word. It embraces such a wide variety of concepts: the shape, the pattern, the whole form, the configuration. “It connotes the structural entity which is both different from and much more than the sum of its parts” (Perls, 1951). The idea of the family provides a useful example. A family is made up of separate members, each with his or her individual psychology. One could analyse each of them without seeing the others, but the way in which the family operates as a systematic whole is uniquely more than and different from, the sum total of the individual psychologies of the family members.
“Gestalt approach in counselling aims for a person to discover, explore and experience his or her own shape, pattern and wholeness” (Clarkson, 1999). Gestalt is the integration of all disparate parts of a person and their environment. In this way people can let themselves become totally what they already are, and what they potentially can become.
Gestalt is a very broad theory that entails many different aspects some of which are the phi phenomenon, the gestalt laws of pragnanz, closure, similarity, figure-ground, and proximity just to name a few. Though the aspects of Gestalt that will be discussed further are the effect of prior knowledge, unfinished situations, the sum of all parts theory and the relationship of the individual and their environment.
In 1926 by Dr Kurt Goldstein, an eminent neuropsychiatrist, focused on the organismic integrity of individual behaviour and its drive towards self-actualisation no matter how damaged the organism may seem. The principles of Gestalt psychological theory were largely based on experiments in perception which emphasised the holistic, organismic and biological theory of human functioning and growth (Clarkson, 1999). In gestalt theory the central human activity is viewed as people’s need to give meaning to their perceptions, their experience and their existence. The gestalt approach is therefore concerned with defining the nature of human lives in terms of meaningful wholes, whether these be biological or spiritual.
As mentioned earlier, for a Gestalt psychologist, "any whole is greater than the sum of its parts," which means that the whole has properties that cannot be understood by analysing it into its individual parts” (Perls, 1951). An example of this is the animal world would be a bee colony, whereby the queen and all her workers living and working in the hive make up the colony, so the whole colony is greater than the sum of all its parts (being the individual bees)(Boulay, et al.).
Gestalt psychologists "found perception to be heavily influenced by the context or configuration of the perceived elements" (Clarkson, 1999). Context is one of the most important concepts in teaching and learning.
Another key idea presented by Gestalt psychologists is that our prior knowledge greatly influences our current perception and memory for stimuli. Therefore, "when we remember something, we are reconstructing our perceptions of the event" (Cohen, 2002). An example of this is that of people suffering from Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). Cohen (2002) also wrote that "PTSD is due to the inability of the individual to disengage from an experience and to absorb and digest it". Cohen saw symptoms of trauma as manifestations of attempts to assimilate experiences that are not able to be assimilated, repeated unsuccessful attempts at completion, dissatisfaction with the person's own responses to the unusual circumstances and an existential crisis.
Gestalt principles can be used in different areas in different workplaces, not necessarily just social work, counselling and psychology. Reb & Cropanzano (2007) stipulate that in work place evaluations, individuals who need to provide summary ratings, such as supervisors making semiannual performance evaluations, are faced with a demanding cognitive task. They need to process a relatively large amount of information that can be arranged in various shapes. This information can consist of objective performance data, such as the sales revenues, or in the subjective impressions derived from interacting with the subordinate, or a combination of both. Raters must then somehow integrate this information and represent it in a single score. As a result of limited cognitive resources, individuals may lack the motivation or the capability to process larger amounts of data in an optimal manner. Indeed, most ratings forms do not even provide instructions as to how dynamic scores should be aggregated. “So, rather than carefully weighing up each bit of available information, it is proposed that individuals use simple, less effortful heuristics that allow them to process information in a holistic manner. As such, they should rely on salient Gestalt characteristics of the experience profile when making their judgments and analysis” (Clarkson, 1999).
Clarkson (1999) states that researchers in Gestalt psychology such as Zeigarnik and Ovsiankina, documented the psychological tension which accompanies experiences which are incomplete or unresolved and the human attempt to close these ‘unfinished situations’. Most people are familiar with the kind of nagging discomfort associated with an uncompleted task such as a half written letter or an undelivered retort. Clarkson (1999) mentions the example of an ‘unfinished situation’, the fictitious story of a famous composer, sometimes Beethoven or Mozart, who tried but could not go to sleep because someone had played a concerto on the piano downstairs without playing the final chords. The composer could not rest until he had been downstairs and played the closing bars himself. Then having thus finished the incomplete auditory Gestalt, he had a peaceful night’s rest.
Unsolved childhood situations are also experienced as unfinished situations. These unfinished situations can continue to disturb the person in adult life. Clarkson (1999) asserts that these unfinished situations have been found to interfere with behaviours, perceptions and thinking related to effective functioning in the now. This interference ‘blinds’ psychological energy and drains it away from effective functioning in the current reality. Pathology may be caused when an unfinished or incomplete Gestalt is inappropriately or prematurely closed under stress. This closure may take physiological, affective, cognitive or behavioural form. For example, when the parents divorced and the situation is not sufficiently explained to the child, he then experiences the tension of an incomplete Gestalt. He needs to give meaning to the experience, and may decide with his three year old logic that the parents split up because he was not born a girl. This would be an example of inappropriate cognitive closure. For the child it was appropriate at the time, since it made sense or meaning out of his existence then. It becomes inappropriate however, when the thirty year old man still experiences at some level of awareness that he is of the ‘wrong sex’.
A German psychologist Kurt Lewin was a founder of Field Theory in psychology and he postulated that it is impossible to view a person except in the context of his or her environmental field. This interrelationship with the environment is a central principle of the Gestalt approach. Clarkson (1999) explains how Lewin was convinced that behaviour was determined by the psychological present more than by the past or the future. A Gestaltist would always work within the matrix of the person with needs in a sociocultural context. Perls (1951) stated that, “Only the interplay of organism and environment... constitutes the psychological situation, not the organism and environment taken separately”. Gestalt is one of the earliest psychotherapeutic approaches to incorporate a system’s perspective on human problems. In some psychoanalytic theories the person is often referred to in terms of object relations. In Gestalt, “organisms and organismic, are the terms that are frequently used to refer to the person. This is to emphasise the dynamic nature of people as biological beings (with animal, social and spiritual needs) systematically interdependent with their environment, a particularly ecological approach” (Clarkson, 1999).
In summary, the Gestalt principle has many facets that try to explain how people do the things they do and interpret the world around them. The sum of all parts aspect of Gestalt has many examples in the world where it is evident, such as families and animals that work in colonies towards a particular goal, particularly bees. Prior knowledge and past experiences affect one’s perceptions on situations and can have detrimental effects, as mentioned earlier the example of people suffering PTSD where they cannot get over their past experiences. Also, the holistic approach to evaluation is also important in being more efficient and effective in the workplace. Lewin’s theory on the individual and their environment needing to be considered as one rather than separate and unrelated. Finally, the theory of ‘unfinished situations’ where a person has not had closure in regard to an aspect of their life in the past, which sometimes creates recurring anxiety which can drain energy from effective functioning in current reality.
References
Boulay, R., Katzav-Govansky, T., Vander Meer, R., & Hefetz, A. (2003). Colony insularity through queen control on worker social motivation in ants. Journal of Biological Sciences. Pp.971-977.
Clarkson, P. (1999). Gestalt counselling in action (2nd Ed.). London: SAGE Publications.
Cohen, A. (2002). Gestalt Therapy and Post-traumatic Stress Disorder: The potential and its (lack of) Fulfilment. Gestalt!, Vol.6; No.1 N.P.
Perls, Hefferline and Goodman (1951). Gestalt Therapy. Excitement and Growth in the Human Personality. New York. Dell Publishing Co., Inc
Reb, J. & Cropanzano, R. (2007). Evaluating dynamic performance: The influence on salient Gestalt characteristics on performance ratings. Journal of Applied Psychology. Pp. 490-499.
APPENDIX
Theory:
In my blog I have definitely established an analysis of the theoretical literature relating to my topic of Gestalt, and understood it thoroughly.
Research:
There was a considerable amount of research that I came across as i was preparing for the essay, as the topic is so broad. The word limit for this assessment task seems particularly short as the topics that have an incredible amount of information and research done on them. I have made an effective use of the research findings related to my essay topic.
Written Expression:
The essay I have submitted is readable and flows like any good essay should as i have used the appropriate essay structure. My APA style is perfect as it is up to the standards of the APA referencing requirements.
In this particular essay I did not feel that any tables or concept mapping would be any benefit to the reader in trying to explain the concepts that I have covered in my essay. The lay out and style of my blog has been set out for ease of reading for the audience.
Online Engagement:
My online engagement on blog 2 has improved leaps and bounds from my first blog. Learning how to post links and finally getting the hang of the different set out of the Social Psychology site has been helpful.
I have made comments on a couple of blog sites
http://www.socialpsychology-ali.blogspot.com
http://www.mrsfreud.blogspot.com
I have improved my engagement for this blog, although I do feel that I should keep familiarising myself with the whole blog scene as to improve my engagement score in the future. I do feel that a pass grade on enegagement should be awarded as I have made much more of an effort this time around :)
Sunday, October 28, 2007
Wednesday, October 3, 2007
Groups/mobs
Hey guys,
I was just wasting my time on Facebook as i tend to do a lot these days, and i came across this "flash mob" group that had a link to a YouTube video. It's off some random Japanese television show. And i just thought that it was interesting how people react in these social situations that are certainly out of the ordinary.. Thoughts? Comments? Suggestions? :)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bj0Ma2CsHME
PS i hope this works!
I was just wasting my time on Facebook as i tend to do a lot these days, and i came across this "flash mob" group that had a link to a YouTube video. It's off some random Japanese television show. And i just thought that it was interesting how people react in these social situations that are certainly out of the ordinary.. Thoughts? Comments? Suggestions? :)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bj0Ma2CsHME
PS i hope this works!
Tuesday, September 18, 2007
Blog 2
Gestalt Psychology What is it? Explain the main ideas and principles using your own examples.
Gestalt psychology (also Gestalt theory of the Berlin School) is a theory of mind and brain that proposes that the operational principle of the brain is holistic, parallel, and analog, with self-organizing tendencies; or, that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.
Gestalt psychology (also Gestalt theory of the Berlin School) is a theory of mind and brain that proposes that the operational principle of the brain is holistic, parallel, and analog, with self-organizing tendencies; or, that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.
Sunday, September 2, 2007
Attitude Change - Essay
TOPIC: Attitude Change
What factors determine the success of attitude change programs?
Describe theoretical bases and research evidence about key elements underlying attitude change programs.
Attitudes represent our covert feelings of favourability or unfavourability toward an object, person, issue, or behaviour. Examples of some common attitudes are; smoking, and sun protection, which will be discussed in more depth. Kihan tells us that attitude is defined by Fishbein as “a learned predisposition to response in a consistently favourable or unfavourable manner with respect to a given object”. Audiences learn these attitudes over time by being exposed to the object directly (experience) or through receiving information about the object (e.g., advertising). Our learned attitudes serve as general guides to our overt behaviour with respect to the attitude object, giving rise to a consistently favourable or unfavourable pattern of response. Advertising is very important in allowing for people to be informed about topics in society that are important to the wellbeing of the general population (Kihan, 2002).
Kihan (2002) quotes from Fishbein that, attitude is an independent measure of affect for or against the attitude object, which is a function of belief strength and evaluative aspect associated with each attribute. When an attitude changes from A to B, it is asked what happens to A? Most theories assume, at least implicitly that the new attitude replaces the former one. However, emerging research in psychology suggest that a new attitude can override, but not replace, the old one, resulting in dual attitudes. One of which is an automatic, implicit attitude and the other of which is an explicit attitude. So once an attitude has been changed it may need reminding occasionally in case the individual reverts back to the old ways.
There has been a significant push for the attitudes of smoking to be stigmatized with negative connotations. Nicotine, the most abused psychoactive substance, has been characterized as causing the most deadly epidemic of modern times (Stratton, Shetty, Wallace, & Bondurant, 2001). Besides causing serious health problems for example, cancer, heart disease, emphysema, that costs billions of dollars annually, smoking is responsible for 25% to 33% of all deaths in the United States (Andersen, Keller, & McGowan, Hurt et al., Klatsky, Rice, 1999). Additionally, 2,000 youths start smoking cigarettes each day (Substance Abuse and Mental Health Administration, 2002). Thus, research on tobacco cessation is an important priority.
In a recent study using a similar technique from the Heatherton and Nichols (1994) study, the researchers Todd, Sobell, Carter, Simco, Edward (2006) analysed and compared individuals concerns and focuses with their nicotine addiction between successful and unsuccessful quitters. Successful changers described themselves as having more control over their behavior than non-changers did. Changers as compared with non-changers also (a) described more consequential threats (e.g., health problems) and focal events (e.g., a conclusive decision) as reasons for change; (b) reported stronger negative affect (e.g., anxiety); (c) reported the importance and assistance of others (e.g, family members); and (d) reported significantly more statements relating to commitments to change (e.g., informing peers about the decision to change), more environmental change, and less ambivalence toward change. Each individual can watch the same advertisement for quitting smoking, and they may have totally different reactions to the advertisement.
In recent years quit smoking campaigns have used the method of ‘shock value’, whereby images of a smoker’s lung, clogged arteries or eyes for example are shown so that the audience can see for themselves the significant impact of what smoking can do to you. Ms Judith Watt, the Executive Director of the Quit campaign stated in an ABC radio interview that the QuitLine has been very effective in that of those people who called 12 months later 29% of people had stopped smoking which is a very good statistic. Relatability is also important so that the audience can imagine the consequences of smoking actually happening to them. The information in the campaigns must also be accessible to the public, in addition to be simple enough for an average person to understand. Informing everyone as young as possible so that they have the knowledge to make decision about what they do in their life.
In Australia the ‘Slip, Slop and Slap’ campaign was introduced in an effort to increase people’s awareness of skin cancer from excessive exposure to the sun (The Cancer Council, 2006). Some schools have implemented a ‘no hat, no play’ rule, whereby if students do not have a hat, then they must sit in the shade during recess and lunch times. This promotes the students to wear hats each time they go out in the sun. As mentioned earlier educating children at a young age about the effects of the choices that they make even as children in wearing hats can prevent cancer and possibly death later in life from skin related diseases.
A study by Mahler, Kulik and Gibbons (2007) found that excessive UV exposure can produce uneven epidermal pigmentation. When this uneven pigmentation is viewed with a UV filter the skin appears blotchy and very unattractive, the participants are then shown the images of themselves with the uneven skin. This then reinforces the attitude not to use solariums or sunbathe excessively. People sunbathe or use solariums for the improvement of their appearance, so showing them the images of themselves now hideously unattractive should turn them off the behavior. As mentioned earlier the changing of an attitude may not totally replace the old attitude, so keeping that in mind it would be important to keep reminding the people who have participated in the exercise that excessive exposure to the UV has very negative consequences.
In summary, people have attitudes about everything, whether it is, brands of appliances, prejudices or health issues. The important factor is that everyone is well and correctly informed about the topics that are affecting or society. Additionally, as psychologists have found, old attitudes may reappear in the future, which can affect the decisions that people make, and may have significant consequences such as illness or death in the case of sun exposure and/or smoking cigarettes. Knowledge is the key in being able to have correct attitudes towards topics in our society.
Reference List
Andersen, S., Keller, C., & McGowan, N. (1999). Smoking cessation: The state of the science. The utility of the transtheoretical model in guiding interventions in smoking cessation. Online Journal of Knowledge Synthesis for Nursing, 6Article 2.
Helvig, Todd M., Sobell, Carter, L., Sobell, Mark B., Simco, Edward R., (2006). Smokers' Narrative Accounts of Quit Attempts: Aids and Impediments to Success Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, Vol. 20, Issue 2
Kihan, K. (2002). Attitude. From the How Advertising Works webpage. Visited 15 August, 2007. http://www.ciadvertising.org/SA/fall_02/adv382j/khkim05/howadwrok/attitude.htm
Mahler, Heike, I., Kulik, M., Gibbons M. (2007). Long-term effects of appearance-based interventions on sun protection behaviors. Health Psychology, Vol. 26, Issue 3
[n.n]. (1998). Anti-smoking advertisements a success. From News In Science Webpage, visited 15 August, 2007 http://www.abc.net.au/science/news/stories/s17759.htm
[N.n]. (2007) The Cancer Council. From the SunSmart webpage. Visited 15 August, 2007. http://www.sunsmart.com.au/browse.asp?ContainerID=1753
Stratton, K., Shetty, P., Wallace, R., & Bondurant, S. (2001). Clearing the smoke: The science base for tobacco harm reduction—executive summary. Tobacco Control, 10, 189–195
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Administration. (2002). National Household Survey on Drug Use and Health: Main findings 2002. Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
What factors determine the success of attitude change programs?
Describe theoretical bases and research evidence about key elements underlying attitude change programs.
Attitudes represent our covert feelings of favourability or unfavourability toward an object, person, issue, or behaviour. Examples of some common attitudes are; smoking, and sun protection, which will be discussed in more depth. Kihan tells us that attitude is defined by Fishbein as “a learned predisposition to response in a consistently favourable or unfavourable manner with respect to a given object”. Audiences learn these attitudes over time by being exposed to the object directly (experience) or through receiving information about the object (e.g., advertising). Our learned attitudes serve as general guides to our overt behaviour with respect to the attitude object, giving rise to a consistently favourable or unfavourable pattern of response. Advertising is very important in allowing for people to be informed about topics in society that are important to the wellbeing of the general population (Kihan, 2002).
Kihan (2002) quotes from Fishbein that, attitude is an independent measure of affect for or against the attitude object, which is a function of belief strength and evaluative aspect associated with each attribute. When an attitude changes from A to B, it is asked what happens to A? Most theories assume, at least implicitly that the new attitude replaces the former one. However, emerging research in psychology suggest that a new attitude can override, but not replace, the old one, resulting in dual attitudes. One of which is an automatic, implicit attitude and the other of which is an explicit attitude. So once an attitude has been changed it may need reminding occasionally in case the individual reverts back to the old ways.
There has been a significant push for the attitudes of smoking to be stigmatized with negative connotations. Nicotine, the most abused psychoactive substance, has been characterized as causing the most deadly epidemic of modern times (Stratton, Shetty, Wallace, & Bondurant, 2001). Besides causing serious health problems for example, cancer, heart disease, emphysema, that costs billions of dollars annually, smoking is responsible for 25% to 33% of all deaths in the United States (Andersen, Keller, & McGowan, Hurt et al., Klatsky, Rice, 1999). Additionally, 2,000 youths start smoking cigarettes each day (Substance Abuse and Mental Health Administration, 2002). Thus, research on tobacco cessation is an important priority.
In a recent study using a similar technique from the Heatherton and Nichols (1994) study, the researchers Todd, Sobell, Carter, Simco, Edward (2006) analysed and compared individuals concerns and focuses with their nicotine addiction between successful and unsuccessful quitters. Successful changers described themselves as having more control over their behavior than non-changers did. Changers as compared with non-changers also (a) described more consequential threats (e.g., health problems) and focal events (e.g., a conclusive decision) as reasons for change; (b) reported stronger negative affect (e.g., anxiety); (c) reported the importance and assistance of others (e.g, family members); and (d) reported significantly more statements relating to commitments to change (e.g., informing peers about the decision to change), more environmental change, and less ambivalence toward change. Each individual can watch the same advertisement for quitting smoking, and they may have totally different reactions to the advertisement.
In recent years quit smoking campaigns have used the method of ‘shock value’, whereby images of a smoker’s lung, clogged arteries or eyes for example are shown so that the audience can see for themselves the significant impact of what smoking can do to you. Ms Judith Watt, the Executive Director of the Quit campaign stated in an ABC radio interview that the QuitLine has been very effective in that of those people who called 12 months later 29% of people had stopped smoking which is a very good statistic. Relatability is also important so that the audience can imagine the consequences of smoking actually happening to them. The information in the campaigns must also be accessible to the public, in addition to be simple enough for an average person to understand. Informing everyone as young as possible so that they have the knowledge to make decision about what they do in their life.
In Australia the ‘Slip, Slop and Slap’ campaign was introduced in an effort to increase people’s awareness of skin cancer from excessive exposure to the sun (The Cancer Council, 2006). Some schools have implemented a ‘no hat, no play’ rule, whereby if students do not have a hat, then they must sit in the shade during recess and lunch times. This promotes the students to wear hats each time they go out in the sun. As mentioned earlier educating children at a young age about the effects of the choices that they make even as children in wearing hats can prevent cancer and possibly death later in life from skin related diseases.
A study by Mahler, Kulik and Gibbons (2007) found that excessive UV exposure can produce uneven epidermal pigmentation. When this uneven pigmentation is viewed with a UV filter the skin appears blotchy and very unattractive, the participants are then shown the images of themselves with the uneven skin. This then reinforces the attitude not to use solariums or sunbathe excessively. People sunbathe or use solariums for the improvement of their appearance, so showing them the images of themselves now hideously unattractive should turn them off the behavior. As mentioned earlier the changing of an attitude may not totally replace the old attitude, so keeping that in mind it would be important to keep reminding the people who have participated in the exercise that excessive exposure to the UV has very negative consequences.
In summary, people have attitudes about everything, whether it is, brands of appliances, prejudices or health issues. The important factor is that everyone is well and correctly informed about the topics that are affecting or society. Additionally, as psychologists have found, old attitudes may reappear in the future, which can affect the decisions that people make, and may have significant consequences such as illness or death in the case of sun exposure and/or smoking cigarettes. Knowledge is the key in being able to have correct attitudes towards topics in our society.
Reference List
Andersen, S., Keller, C., & McGowan, N. (1999). Smoking cessation: The state of the science. The utility of the transtheoretical model in guiding interventions in smoking cessation. Online Journal of Knowledge Synthesis for Nursing, 6Article 2.
Helvig, Todd M., Sobell, Carter, L., Sobell, Mark B., Simco, Edward R., (2006). Smokers' Narrative Accounts of Quit Attempts: Aids and Impediments to Success Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, Vol. 20, Issue 2
Kihan, K. (2002). Attitude. From the How Advertising Works webpage. Visited 15 August, 2007. http://www.ciadvertising.org/SA/fall_02/adv382j/khkim05/howadwrok/attitude.htm
Mahler, Heike, I., Kulik, M., Gibbons M. (2007). Long-term effects of appearance-based interventions on sun protection behaviors. Health Psychology, Vol. 26, Issue 3
[n.n]. (1998). Anti-smoking advertisements a success. From News In Science Webpage, visited 15 August, 2007 http://www.abc.net.au/science/news/stories/s17759.htm
[N.n]. (2007) The Cancer Council. From the SunSmart webpage. Visited 15 August, 2007. http://www.sunsmart.com.au/browse.asp?ContainerID=1753
Stratton, K., Shetty, P., Wallace, R., & Bondurant, S. (2001). Clearing the smoke: The science base for tobacco harm reduction—executive summary. Tobacco Control, 10, 189–195
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Administration. (2002). National Household Survey on Drug Use and Health: Main findings 2002. Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
Self Assessment
Theory:
This essay's main purpose is to investigate the way in which attitude change can be implemented, through different means. The different current topics that are in the media today are things such as attitudes towards smoking and awareness of the dangers of excessive sun exposure.
Research:
The research that was conducted was a thorough analyses of peer reviewed journal articles, web pages of different associations in relation to health and attitudes towards certain current and contenscious topics today. The articles and web pages offered case studies where the attitudes of people towards their addiction etc was and how it is influenced.
Written Expression:
The essay is written in APA format with a reference list following it. Additionally, a concept map has been added for ease of understanding the topic. Two links have been posted for further information on the two chosen topics of the essay. The word count is 1121.
Online Engagement:
There could have been more online engagement for this topic for the essays, the extra input and ideas from other students could serve as useful.
This essay's main purpose is to investigate the way in which attitude change can be implemented, through different means. The different current topics that are in the media today are things such as attitudes towards smoking and awareness of the dangers of excessive sun exposure.
Research:
The research that was conducted was a thorough analyses of peer reviewed journal articles, web pages of different associations in relation to health and attitudes towards certain current and contenscious topics today. The articles and web pages offered case studies where the attitudes of people towards their addiction etc was and how it is influenced.
Written Expression:
The essay is written in APA format with a reference list following it. Additionally, a concept map has been added for ease of understanding the topic. Two links have been posted for further information on the two chosen topics of the essay. The word count is 1121.
Online Engagement:
There could have been more online engagement for this topic for the essays, the extra input and ideas from other students could serve as useful.
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